Imperialism in Africa and India

Section 1: A Scramble For Africa †¢ European nations needed to fuel industrial production †¢ Competed for new markets for goods and took huge interest in Africa †¢ Imperialism- Seizure of a country or territory by a stronger country o Occurred throughout most of Africa o Europe came in and dominated †¢ Mid 1800’s Africans divided into ethnic and linguistic groups †¢ Some converted to Islam and Christianity †¢ Most kept traditions and religion For 400 years African army able to keep Europeans out †¢ Until late 1800’s Europe only dominated coast of Africa †¢ Couldn’t navigate rivers †¢ Disease also kept them out †¢ Specialized trade networks †¢ Introduction of steam powered river boats allowed Europeans to dominate more of Africa’s interior †¢ Those who did get in were against slave trade †¢ People learned about Africa through their publications The Congo Sparks Interest: †¢ Dr. David Livi ngstone traveled with group of Africans into deep Africa to promote Christianity †¢ Several years past and people thought he was dead Henry Stanley went to find him and succeeded †¢ Stanley wanted to trace course of Congo River †¢ In 1879 and 1882 Stanley signed treaties with local chiefs of the Congo River Valley †¢ Gave King Leopold II of Belgium control of these lands †¢ Leopold II claimed wanted to abolish slave trade and promote Christianity †¢ Brutally exploited Africans by forcing them to collect sap from rubber plants †¢ About 10 million Africans died due to abuse In 1908 Belgian govt. took control of Congo away from king †¢ Congo 80x larger than Belgium †¢ This alarmed France because they had signed treated that gave them control of north bank of Congo †¢ Soon More European and Latin American countries began to claim parts of Africa Forces Driving Imperialism †¢ Industrial Revolution drove European countries to obtain m ore land †¢ European countries searched for more markets Europeans viewed themselves as the greatest nation and race †¢ Racism- the belief that one race is superior to others †¢ Social Darwinism- theory that those who were fittest for survival enjoyed wealth and success and were superior to others †¢ Non-Europeans on lower scale of cultural and physical development because didn’t make technological progress †¢ Europeans thought was their job to bring advancements to other countries †¢ European missionaries sought to convert lands to Christianity †¢ Hoped Christianity would bring end to evil practices like slave trade †¢ Also wanted to civilize landsFactors promoting Imperialism in Africa: †¢ European’s technological superiority †¢ Europeans had guns †¢ Europeans had steam engines that allowed them to control deep Africa †¢ Europeans had railroads, cables, and steamships that allowed them to communicate within colony and to controlling nation †¢ Drug quinine prevented Europeans from catching diseases †¢ Africa wasn’t unified due to diversity and wars fought between different ethnic groups Divison of Africa: †¢ Discoveries of diamonds and gold in south Africa increased European’s interest in conquering Africa †¢ All European countries became part of raceBerlin conference divides Africa: †¢ Berlin Conference- 14 European nations who met to lay down rules for the division of Africa †¢ Competition between European countries †¢ Any country could conquer land but had to notify other European countries †¢ How Africans felt about it wasn’t a factor †¢ Didn’t pay attention to how ethnic and linguistic groups in Africa were distributed †¢ By 1914 only Liberia and Ethiopia were free from European control Demand for Raw Materials Shapes Colonies: †¢ During colonization Europeans believed Africans would buy their goods †¢ Only few Africans did this Businesses still needed raw materials †¢ Greatest wealth obtained from Africa was large mineral sources †¢ Congo contained copper and tin †¢ This nothing compared to diamonds and gold in south Africa †¢ Developed cash crop: peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber †¢ Replaced food crops needed by farmers to feed families Three Groups Clash over South Africa: †¢ Zulu chief, Shaka used highly disciplined warriors and good military organization to create large centralized state †¢ Shaka’s successors unable to keep control †¢ Zulu nation eventually fell to British controlBoers and British Settle in the Cape: †¢ Boers- Dutch settlers (Boer=farmer in Dutch) who took African’s land and established large farms †¢ When British took control of Cape Colony there was clash over British policy of slaves and land †¢ Boers moved north in Great Trek to escape from British †¢ Started fighting fie rcely with Zulu and other African groups whose land was getting taken †¢ When Diamonds and gold found in south Africa Boers tried to keep outsiders from gaining political rights †¢ British tried to rebel against Boers and failed Boers rose against British in Boer war †¢ The war was brutal (no mercy) †¢ Many black southern Africans also participated †¢ Many were captured and put in British concentration camps †¢ Britain won war †¢ Europeans made efforts to change political, social and economic lives of people they conquered Section 2: Imperialism: †¢ Imperialism of 18th and 19th century different than previous imperialism †¢ Europeans demanded more influence over all aspects of African lives †¢ Determined to shape economies to help benefit European economies †¢ Wanted people to adopt European customsForms of Control: †¢ 4 types: o Colony- a country or territory governed internally by a foreign power o Protectorate- A country or territory with its own internal government but under the control of an outside power o Sphere of influence- an area in which and outside power claims exclusive investment or trading privileges o Economic imperialism- an independent but less developed country controlled by private business interests rather than other govts. †¢ Also had direct and indirect control †¢ Britain and U. S. preferred indirect France and most other European nations preferred direct †¢ Indirect control: o Relied on existing political rulers o Rulers adopted British Authority o Rulers handled much of daily management of colony o Each colony had legislative council: ? Colonial officials ? Local merchants ? Professionals ? Colonial governor †¢ Direct Control: †¢ French and other European didn’t think Africans could run country †¢ Paternalism- the idea that the people in authority restrict freedoms to their subordinates for the subordinates’ good †¢ Gave them n eeds but not rights Europeans brought in own bureaucrats †¢ Didn’t train Africans in European methods of govt. †¢ Assimilation- the idea that the local population would adopt the superior culture in order to become more like them †¢ Africans adopted French culture †¢ All schools, courts, and businesses patterned after French institutions †¢ In practice idea of assimilation abandoned †¢ French resided to indirect control †¢ Recognized African culture but saw it as inferior |Indirect Control |Direct control | |Local govt. fficials used: |Foreign officials brought in to rule | |Limited self-rule |No self rule | |Goal: to develop future leaders |Goal: assimilation | |Govt. institutions based on European styles but may have |Govt. institutions are based only on European styles | |local rules | |A British Colony: †¢ Britain gained control of southern Nigeria †¢ Some local rulers agreed to sign treaties of protection and accept British r esidents †¢ Others opposed intervention and rebelled against it †¢ British defeated rebellions †¢ Royal Niger Comp. gained control of palm oil trade over Niger River Delta †¢ In 1914 British claimed entire Nigeria as colony Managing the Colony: †¢ Nigeria culturally diverse †¢ Three main groups were: o Hausa-Fulani: ? Muslim ? Had strong central govt. o Yoruba Followed traditional religion ? Relied on chiefs for control o Igbo ? Same as Yoruba †¢ Didn’t have enough British troops to govern such complex area †¢ British resided to indirect control †¢ Worked well with Hausa-Fulani but not with other two groups †¢ Local chiefs of Yoruba and Igbo resented limited power African Resistance: †¢ Africans resisted European attempts to colonize †¢ But Europeans had more advanced weaponry †¢ Therefore, Africans didn’t succeed in most cases Unsuccessful Movements: There was resistance and resistance through religious movements †¢ Algeria’s almost 50 year resistance against France †¢ West Africa’s Samori Toure’s 16 year resistance against France †¢ African villagers resisted Germans in spiritual defense o Believed magic water would turn German’s bullets to water o 20 groups came together and fought against Germans o Fighters believed God and their ancestors would return to life and assist them o Over 75,000 Africans died o Twice that many Africans died in famine to follow o Germans shocked and passed some reformsEthiopia: A successful Resistance †¢ Only African nation that successfully resisted Europeans †¢ Menelik II- became emperor of Ethiopia in 1889 †¢ Successfully played Italians, French, and British against each other †¢ Built up large arsenal of modern weapons he purchased from Russia and France †¢ Menelik II signed treaty with Italy while Italians were invading the country †¢ Menelik II declared war in 1896 †¢ B attle of Adowa was largest battle in history of Africa †¢ Ethiopians won and kept independence Legacy of Colonial Rule: †¢ Negative effects: Africans lost control of land and independence o Lost many people to disease and rebellion o Famine o Breakdown of traditional culture o Traditional authorities replaced o Homes and properties transferred o People lost jobs o Identity issues o Division of Africa o Unnaturally divided groups o No Unity †¢ Positive Effects: o Local warfare reduced o Sanitation improved o Hospitals o Schools o Lifespans increased o Literacy increased o Economic expansion o Railroads, dams, telephone, telegraph lines built in Africa o However, this only really benefited the EuropeansSection 4: British Imperialism in India: †¢ Area controlled by East India Company grew overtime †¢ Both directly and indirectly governed southern India, Bangladesh, and territory along Ganges River in north †¢ British govt. regulated East India company â₠¬ ¢ Company ruled India without British interference until 19th century †¢ Had own army with British officers †¢ Sepoys- Indian soldiers †¢ Army was dangerous because could easily turn against British Britain’s â€Å"Jewel in the Crown†: †¢ Industrial revolution turned Britain into world’s workshop †¢ India supplied Britain with many raw supplies India’s 3,000,000 people also large potential market for British made goods †¢ India was â€Å"brightest jewel in crown† because it was the most valuable of all Britain’s colonies †¢ British made restrictions that prevented Indian economy from operating on its own †¢ Indians could only produce raw materials for Britain †¢ Indians were not allowed to compete with Britain British Transport Trade Goods: †¢ Railroad system built in India †¢ India became more valuable †¢ Most of raw materials transported included: o Tea o Indigo o Coffee o Cotto n Jute o Opium †¢ Sold trade opium for tea from China †¢ Sold tea in England Impact of Colonialism: Negative impact on India: †¢ British held most of economical and political power †¢ British restricted Indian owned industries †¢ Many villagers couldn’t be self sufficient due to emphasis on cash crop †¢ Food production reduced †¢ Famine †¢ Racism †¢ Forced conversion to Christianity Positive impact on India: †¢ Had world’s third largest railroad system †¢ Railroad system united brought modern economy that India †¢ Sanitation and public health improved India modernized by railroads, telephones, telegraphs, dams, bridges, irrigation canals †¢ Schools and collages founded †¢ Literacy increased †¢ Idea cleared of bandits †¢ Local welfare amongst competing rulers The Sepoy Mutiny: †¢ British controlled most of India †¢ Believed British were trying to convert Indians to Christianity â⠂¬ ¢ There was so much racism †¢ Nationalist idea emerged †¢ The Indians decided to rebel †¢ Gossip spread amongst sepoys that the cartridges of their new rifles were greased with beef and pork fat †¢ To use cartridges Indians had to bite off ends Cows were sacred to them and Muslims didn’t eat pork so they were very angered †¢ Soldiers who refused cartilages were imprisoned †¢ Next day they rebelled †¢ Sepoy Munity- rebellion of the Indian soldiers †¢ Uprising spread from Delhi to much of northern India †¢ British and sepoys tried to slaughter each others armies †¢ Took company more than a year to regain control of country †¢ Indians couldn’t unite against British due to weak leadership and conflict between Hindus and Muslims †¢ Hindus preferred British rule over Muslim ruleTurning Point: †¢ After munity Britain took direct control over India †¢ Raj- British rule after India came under British crown during reign of Queen Victoria †¢ To reward many princes who stayed loyal to company during munity, Britain promised to respect all treaties they had with them †¢ Also promised that Indian states that were still free would remain independent †¢ Regardless, British gained control of free states unofficially †¢ Munity fueled racist attitudes of British Munity increased distrust between Indians and British †¢ Hindus and Muslims felt they were being ruined under British rule Nationalism Surfaces in India: †¢ In early 1800’s some Indians began demanding modernization †¢ Ram Mohum Roy, a modern thinking, well educated Indian began campaign to move away from traditional Indian practices †¢ Ram Mohum Roy believed that if practices weren’t changed India would continue to be controlled by outsiders †¢ Ram Mohum Roy’s writings inspired other Indians to press for social reforms and adopt western ways †¢ Nationalist feelings also began to surface in India Indians hated system that made them second class citizens in own country †¢ Made much less money than British workers Nationalist groups form: †¢ 2 nationalist groups formed: o Indian National Congress in 1885 o Muslim League in 1906 ? Focused on Indian’s concerns ? Wanted self government ? Divided in to Hindu and Muslim section ? Separation made it hard for them to unite in calling for independence ? In 1911 British regained control and divided them differently †¢ Conflict over Indian control continued to develop between Indians and British Key Terms: Imperialism- Seizure of a country or territory by a stronger country †¢ African goods: copper, tin, gold, diamonds, rubber, cocoa, palm oil, and peanuts †¢ Racism- the belief that one race is superior to others †¢ Social Darwinism- theory that those who were fittest for survival enjoyed wealth and success and were superior to others †¢ Berlin Conference- 14 Euro pean nations who met to lay down rules for the division of Africa †¢ Shaka- was a Zulu chief used highly disciplined warriors and good military organization to create large centralized state in South Africa.His successors weren’t as successful †¢ Boers- Dutch settlers (Boer=farmer in Dutch) who took African’s land and established large farms †¢ Boer War- War between British and Boers over land and minerals in which British won †¢ Colony- a country or territory governed internally by a foreign power †¢ Protectorate- A country or territory with its own internal government but under the control of an outside power †¢ Sphere of influence- an area in which and outside power claims exclusive investment or trading privileges †¢ Economic imperialism- an independent but less developed country controlled by private business interests rather than other govts. |Indirect Control |Direct control | |Local govt. officials used: Foreign officials bro ught in to rule | |Limited self-rule |No self rule | |Goal: to develop future leaders |Goal: assimilation | |Govt. institutions based on European styles but may have |Govt. institutions are based only on European styles | |local rules | | †¢ India was â€Å"brightest jewel in crown† because it was the most valuable of all Britain’s colonies †¢ Indian goods: Tea, Indigo, Coffee, Cotton, Jute, and Opium †¢ Menelik II- became emperor of Ethiopia in 1889.He was the only one who was successful at preventing his state (Ethiopia) from being conquered. †¢ Sepoys- Indian soldiers †¢ Sepoy Munity- rebellion of the Indian soldiers †¢ Raj- British rule after India came under British crown during reign of Queen Victoria †¢ Ram Mohum Roy- a modern thinking, well educated Indian began campaign to move away from traditional Indian practices and bring nationalism †¢ Paternalism- the idea that the people in authority restrict freedoms to their sub ordinates for the subordinates’ good †¢ Assimilation- the idea that the local population would adopt the superior culture in order to become more like them †¢

he growth of New Social Movements is evidence of a post-industrial society

The aim of my investigation is to see whether the society we now live in is the fragmented post-industrial society that is described by post-modern thinkers and whether the growth of New Social Movements is actually evidence of this fragmentation. I have chosen to study this area because of the low interest shown towards party politics at the 2001 General Election which had a turnout of just 59%. My first objective is to look into whether there has been a so-called death of class in voting behaviour. Traditionally, the working class were seen to vote Labour and the middle class conservative; this is often referred to as voting on class basis. Secondly, I am going to examine reasons for why there is disillusionment with the ability of the state to distribute welfare as I saw on some government statistics that the approx 74% of the wealth in the UK is owned by the richest 25% of the population. This means that the welfare is distributed unevenly with the wealthier being at an advantage, so therefore 75% of the population of Britain has less than adequate welfare. Finally, my third objective is to investigate the disillusionment of ideas offered by political parties because they seem to make promises and often not carry them out. I am also interested in this aim because when political parties offer lower taxes no matter who comes into power the taxes always seem to rise every April. Context Post-modern sociologists generally see the society that we now live in as a fragmented post-modern society. Post-modernity as a whole entails a declining faith in party political organisation because of the disillusionment of the ideas offered. A research questionnaire carried out by Michael Llangberg (2001) on a small scale at a university in America showed that out of every 10 people he questioned 4 of them felt that political parties offered ideas that were worded to sound a lot better than they actually were. This finding links to my third objective of my rationale as I am investigating into this area. My three objectives stated in my rationale are interrelated social developments, which are used by some as evidence of a post-industrial society, one where traditional class struggle and political issues no longer exist. For Hallsworth (1994) the term New Social Movement â€Å"is one developed to refer to the wide and diverse spectrum of new, non-institutional political movements which emerged in Western Liberal Democratic societies during the 1960's and the 1970's. Some sociologists see New Social Movements (NSMs) as reflecting a move away from class-based politics, which mainly focused around economic issues. NSMs encompass gay rights, animal rights, environmental issues and more; they are seen to draw support from individuals across class divisions. Paul Bagguley argues that a key difference between traditional (old) social movements and NSMs is that NSMs are less interested in economic issues but more in a post-modernist sense of focusing on lifestyle and/or identity politics. This helps to link to the so-called death of class based voting discussed in my rationale because it shows how people are more interested in NSMs (a move away from class-based voting) which in turn is shown by the 59% turnout of the 2001 General Election. For those attracted to postmodernist ideas, ‘NSMs are important as they indicate the existence of a new type of society and a new type of politics where class divisions are no longer a central political issue around which debates may focus' stated sociologist Ulrich Beck in his book Risk Society. This more evidence for my first objective in my rationale. Butler and Stokes' (20th century) study into voting behaviour maintained that there was a strong relationship between occupational class and voting behaviour. When it was a two-party system, Butler and Stokes argued that about 4/5 of the middle-class electorate voted Conservative and 2/3 of the working classes voted for Labour. If you refer to my first objective in my rationale, you will see that these results reflect it. They also argued that this partisanship was learnt through a process called political socialisation at an early age. Then, in the 1980's a political scientist, Ivor Crewe presented a number of studies of voting behaviour in Britain and argued that the partisan relationship between class and voting behaviour was breaking down. Crewe concluded that although still significant, class has declined considerably in importance and that voters had to be seen as acting rationally when voting rather than simply voting on class basis and political socialisation. Whereas other sociologists argue that, the apparent decline in class-based voting simply reflects changes in the class structure and a more complex political system. In my rationale, my first objective can be looked into thoroughly using this material. Heath et al, argue (from their study) that class-based support for the major parties has remained at a significant level since the 1960's, although there has been a slight decline in the relationship between class and voting. As there is many studies into my first objective from my rationale that all have the result of yes or no to a decline in class-based voting behaviour I will have to ensure I conclude this for myself from my research. Refer to my second objective in my rationale and you will see that when New Right thinkers Marsland and Murray argue that the welfare state has created a dependency culture and that the correct role for the state is simply to protect the freedom of the market to enable it to function effectively. In this way, the state would not act in a biased way protecting the interests of one class, but would enable all to have the opportunity to maximise their potential. According to Marsland and Murray, reducing the state to the minimum institutional framework necessary for this task would empower all citizens equally and thus the distribution of the welfare state would be equal. Methodology I have chosen to use a questionnaire for my investigation so that my research will be representative of a wider group. For my research to be of sociological value, I need to address the issue of the relationship between my situation research and the wider society. In order to do this I feel that using a quantative method of surveys and a technique of stratified sampling will work best. Practical and ethical issues also have their influence on research. Possible practical problems that may arise include time, money and access. Time should not be a problem for my questionnaire as it is on a relatively small scale and it is low cost so therefore money is not a problem either. Some social groups may not be willing to participate in my questionnaire because they may feel it is a biased questionnaire or for other reasons. The research participants that will partake in my questionnaire are informed at the top of the sheet that it is confidential and that they do not have to answer any questions they do not want to because participants have a right for the research to be confidential and private. My questionnaire is not covert research; therefore, I do not need to discuss this area. My sample will be a small-scale representation of the sampling frame ensuring that my research can be related back to the survey population. The advantages of using a questionnaire include the possibility to obtain a large number of respondents in a short amount of time and the advantage of the respondent having time to consider the questions. This will help ensure that my answers are more accurate. My main concern is the possibility of a low response rate as I have decided to allow respondents to take the questionnaires away ensuring more confidentiality. Another concern is that the questions can not be explained to the respondent if they do no understand what the question is asking; to limit this, I am going to try and make my questions simple, easily readable and explain my questions in brackets after that particular question. As questions can be either open or closed I have decided to use a range of both. I will include a majority of closed questions to give me comparative data while also including a few open questions so that the respondent feels they can explain their opinion on the issue. This will give me more of an insight to feelings about my topic. An example of my questionnaire is show in appendix A. Looking at appendix A. 1, you can see the population of the UK in age and gender, from this I have worked out how many people I will need to survey to get address the issue of the relationship between my situation research and the wider society. I am not going to be using any of my population aged 0-14years as I feel that they are not capable of understanding my questionnaire or for most of them reading it. Therefore, my final survey population total will be 39 males and 42 females with a grand total of 81. My table on appendix A. 1 shows you the ages and number of people to be surveyed for each age. Evidence As you can see (refer to appendix B answers to question 1) only 29. 62% of the population I surveyed felt that they were represented by a certain political party. All of these people felt they were represented by one of the three main political parties and these same people felt they were strongly part of the social class they ticked. In addition, approx 90% of these people said they are more than likely going to vote at a General Election. This shows that even though there has been a decline in class-based voting, there has not been a so-called death of class in voting behaviour patterns. This finding from my research agrees with the study by Ivor Crewe (discussed in context) but on the other hand conflicts with the conclusions made by Heath et al (also discussed in context). The results from my questionnaire answers 3a showed a large number of respondents to be supportive of single issue politics whereas the answers to 3b showed that a considerable percentage of those respondents did not know who to go to deal with their single issue. Answers to questions 4 and 5 showed some strong support towards New Social Movements although the number was small, as discussed earlier many respondents did not know where to go with their single issue. The previous two findings from my research agree with Paul Bagguley's research, which was discussed in my context. The low percentage of people voting on class-basis and the higher percentage of people supporting New Social Movements agree with some sociologists when it is said that NSMs, which are mainly focused around economic issue such as gay rights, are also reflecting a move away from class-based politics. Therefore, I have considered my first objective discussed in my rationale and according to my small-scale study there has not been a death of class-based politics, just a decline. My second objective in my rationale should be answered by question 7b on my questionnaire. One answer by a 24year old female stated, â€Å"The welfare of Britain is unfairly distributed by the government among the top social classes, it is unfair but I feel there is nothing I can do to change this as the government seem to show fair distribution but it is not that way at all. † I feel this sums up the majority of the other answers I received in this particular question which shows that there is a disillusionment with the state to distribute welfare. The majority of scoring for the Sectors discussed in 7. focused around the 6-8 areas, which shows there is a general feeling that the sectors discussed although worryingly there are a range of scores with some people obviously being very unhappy with the sector and the way it has served them. If you refer back to my context to the study discussed by Marsland and Murray my findings contradict this as it is stated that the correct role of the welfare state is to simply protect the freedom of the market to enable it to function properly. Obviously, some people are displeased with the welfare state as they scored sectors quite low indeed. Looking back at my third objective in my rationale, I cannot comment on findings as I have realised my questionnaire did not cater for any answers for evidence to this point. Evaluation and Conclusions From my evidence, I conclude that in the Huntingdon area where my research was carried out that there has been a decline in class-based voting but not a complete death of it. In order to link this to wider society I would have to carry out further research as discussed near the end of this section. Secondly, I deduce that there is disillusionment with the state to distribute welfare discussed in my evidence section. Although, I do not feel that I gained enough information to make further conclusions on this particular objective of my investigation. To further my research I need to include some questions in my questionnaire that can answer and reflect my third objective discussed in my rationale. From the information I gathered, I could not make a fair conclusion or judgement on this objective. In order to gain a more accurate idea of the fragmentation of our society in this so-called post-industrial society where class-basis voting behaviour and political issues are no longer as important, it would be sensible to do some further research. Possible ways of furthering my research include recreating a questionnaire that would be suitable to a larger population and then to survey them to get an idea of the wider picture in societies other than Huntingdon area. I would like to continue research into the so-called death of class-based voting behaviour because my questionnaire was not accurate enough to say whether there has been or not. This is also a very popular topic but no one seems to have come through with a definite answer as many sociologists' findings from research and studies is contradictory of each other. I could do this by holding interviews of certain people, analysing questionnaires and government statistics on electorate turn out at elections and the so-called social class definitions to try to understand what is happening in this post-industrial society as far as class-based voting behaviour is concerned. Overall I think my investigation was only valid for my first objective discussed in my rationale because I became to focused on this particular area and did not realise that my questionnaire did not really cater enough for my second and third objectives. Other than that I feel my response from my survey population was excellent as everyone I gave a questionnaire to returned it promptly for me to analyse and evaluate for my research. The respondents were all understanding and answered all questions necessary as I made it clear that it was completely confidential and that ethical issues and been evaluated.

Promote children’s welfare and well being Essay

1.1) Explain the welfare requirements & guidance of the EYFS. The statutory welfare requirements were set up to help guide childcare staff in what is expected of them as part of their role. There are five welfare requirements which Ofsted will check are being met. Safeguarding and Promoting Children’s Welfare This section covers a lot of the day-to-day activities which that you will be involved in, for example, food and drink, medicines and behaviour management. There must be written consent for any medicines which need to be administered to children. All staff within the setting must be trained in paediatric first aid and fresh water should be available to the children at all times. Staff can smoke outside as long as there are no children present. Fire doors must be able to be opened easily from the inside. It is important that there is one toilet and hand basin for every ten children over the age of 2 so that these areas can be easily accessed. All children within the setting must have a key person to allow the child to settle in easily and make it easier to carry out assessments. Children are only allowed to go home with another adult if their parents have given permission. In my setting the parent should tell a member of staff when they drop their child off if they are getting picked up by somebody else. We use a password system meaning that each child has a unique password on their records that the parent and the person picking the child up should know. This tells us that the child is going with the right person. Suitable People Anybody working with children in any way needs a separate CRB check for each childcare setting that you work in. You should never use physical intervention when disciplining children, this could be seen as a serious offence and may lead to disciplinary or even dismissal. All unqualified staff who are working with children should be encouraged to gain a level two qualification to gain a better knowledge and understanding in their role. The ratios for staff-children vary depending on the age of the children. The  younger the children are, the more staff will be needed. Suitable Premises, Environment and Equipment This aims to ensure that children are looked after in suitable and safe premises. The layout of the room is also important as it should allow children to play and communicate appropriately. There are many legal requirements that apply to this section, for example, checking that toys and furniture are safe and that the outdoor area is clean and secure. Organisation This section of the EYFS relates to the promotion of children’s learning and development. This will include planning activities for the children. It is important that you choose activities carefully which have a positive effect on the children’s development and they will enjoy at the same time. It is important that you show the children a routine whilst giving them support and allowing them to have independence at the same time. Documentation This applies to records for children, students doing placement at the setting, and staff working at the setting. These should be kept in a secure, locked cupboard in a private area. These records may need to be changed if there is a change of address or contact number. 1.2) Explain the lines of reporting & responsibility within your setting Within my setting if there is an issue concerning a child then depending on the issue you may report it to the child’s key person first of all. If it is a serious issue then you may choose to go straight to your line manager or child protection officer. In my setting my line manager is my child protection officer so I would go straight to her. If it is a small issue then I could tell my room supervisor. If there was an issue concerning a member of staff then I would straight to my line manager to avoid breaching confidentiality. 2.4) Explain giving examples, why minimum requirements for Space and Staff  ratio’s are necessary for children’s safety. Minimum space requirements and staff ratios are necessary for the children’s safety because it is important that there are a sufficient amount of adults to supervise the children and meet their needs. Generally the younger the children are, the higher the requirement for space and staff ratio. Most settings will easily meet these requirements. There should be at least one member of staff present when there are three children in care. There should be at least two members of staff present when there are 4-7 children in care. There should be at least three members of staff present when there are 8 or more children in care. It is important that children have enough room to move freely without having accidents. The room should be laid out in a way that makes more space for the children. If there are accidents then the furniture or equipment should be moved to prevent it from happening again. 3.1) Explain how you promote children’s health & well being in your setting Within my setting we promote children’s health and well-being in many ways. Healthy Eating If children have not had breakfast before the come into the setting then we offer them toast or cereal and a drink of milk to make sure they have the energy they need for the day. The children are provided with a healthy snack in the morning and afternoon. This usually includes toast, various fruit and milk. The children are provided with a healthy meal for lunch, for example roast chicken dinner. Fresh air and Physical activity We then try to get the children outside for about an hour to ensure that they are getting the necessary exercise and vitamin D. This allows the children to breathe in more oxygenated air and ensures appropriate ventilation to prevent the spreading of infections. We also try to include an activity in the planning which will ensure the children are being active, for example dancing or an obstacle course. Hygiene We make sure that the children’s nappies are changed morning and afternoon, more if needed. If the children’s clothes are dirty or wet from play then we will change them. We make sure that children wash their hands after going to the toilet and before eating. Health surveillance We always keep a close on children to monitor their health. If we think a child may be ill then we will take the appropriate actions. This may mean just taking the child’s temperature and giving them a drink and taking clothing off if they are too hot. Depending on how ill the child is and how long it is till they get picked up we may ring their parents to collect them. Rest and sleep The children usually have a story or songs before their snack in the morning and afternoon and before their lunch. This is a time where the children can rest and sit quietly. If the children are tired then we allow them to have a sleep in a quiet area of the room. Provide an example of a week’s menu, showing balanced meals, snack & drinks for children, following current government guidance on nutritional needs. This menu follows the government guidance on nutritional needs because it includes a lot of fruit and vegetables. It is very varied in different meals and includes most, if not all of the elements of the Eatwell Plate which is recommended by the government. Why is it important to follow carers’ instructions in respect of their child’s food allergies or intolerances? It is important that you follow carer’s instructions on their child’s food allergies and intolerances as it can lead to serious consequences. Key workers should be aware of children in their group who have allergies or intolerances. Posters should be made to be displayed within the setting to remind staff. However these should be displayed in the staff room and kitchen; areas where other parents cannot see them. How would you recognise signs & symptoms of food allergies/intolerances? Signs and symptoms of food allergies can include swelling of lips or eyes, redness of the face, itching and difficulty breathing. Children with serious allergies may be given an Epipen. Children with severe food allergies may also have an inhaler. Training will be given to staff on how to use this and the child’s key person will be in charge of it. Food intolerances are usually noticed by the child having diarrhoea. Due to diarrhoea having more than one cause it is important that parents talk to their GP about a suspected food intolerance. Including: Portion control It is important that children and parents are aware of what is the right size portion for the child. This is because this can lead to them becoming under or over weight. This could also include the types of food that are included in the portion of food as some foods are healthier for children than others. For example fizzy drinks, chocolate and cake aren’t good for children and can make them become hyperactive and fruit and vegetables are good for children and will provide them with the vitamins that they need. However some fruit juices can also be high in sugar so sometimes it is best just to stick to water. Tackling under and over weight children The weight of a child is mainly due to the types of food that the child is eating and the size of the portion. The right amount of exercise is also key in the child being the correct weight. It is important that you are doing the right amount of exercise as too much exercise could mean that you become underweight and too little can mean that you become overweight. Sugary foods like fizzy drinks, cakes, chocolate and sweets will make you put on weight a  lot quicker so it is best to avoid these, however you do need a small amount in your diet. Parents should be advised early if it is thought that their child is under or over weight so that action can be taken. Parents will often choose to believe that their child is just ‘cuddly’ as they don’t want to believe that they are overweight. There are many leaflets and websites that parents can go to for more information on the subject. Being under or over weight can also lead to the child having self-confidence issues so it is best to avoid this. If a child is under or over weight then there may be other issues leading to this so it is important to take the time to discuss issues carefully with the child. Food phobias Many children will have phobias of certain foods. This may stem from a bad experience or from them not liking the food. It could also come from watching important adults in their life not eating certain foods and thinking that they shouldn’t either. This can lead to many problems when trying to get children to eat a proper balanced meal. Therefore it is important that parents or carers are provided with tips on how to tackle this. 6.2) Explain the regulations concerning management of medicines & how these are interpreted in the setting. (Cross ref. Unit CYP 3.4-4.2, Unit CYP 3.6-2.3) Where medical treatment is required the manager will inform the insurance company in writing. Medical forms must be filled in where medicine is administered to children. These must include the date and times to be given, the name of the medicine and how much to give to the child. The form must be filled in by the parent or carer of the child in the presence of a member of staff, at the start of the child’s session. The medication must be kept in the correct place, i.e a fridge or a cool, dry place and a first aider must give the child the medication. We have a child within our setting with asthma who has an ongoing medicine form for his inhaler. 6.3) Explain how you protect yourself when lifting & handling children &  equipment in the setting. It is important when lifting anything that you lift with your knees and not your back. Some children can be quite heavy so it is best to avoid lifting them or getting another member of staff to help you. Poor lifting and handling results in many back injuries. Every member of staff should attend a lifting and handling course. You should always follow your settings policy on lifting and handling. Your manager should have carried out a risk assessment covering daily activities that require you to lift and handle children and resources. You should assess the situation before you move a child or equipment. It may be a good idea to make the object you are lifting smaller or make two trips. To conclude your assignment, consider how your research has impacted on your knowledge and understanding in this area of learning. The main sources for my research for this assignment were the book and knowledge from my work setting. I have learnt about dietary needs for different cultures and religions and how to store breast and formula milk.

Different Types of Yoga in Hinduism Serves Different Functions Research Paper

Different Types of Yoga in Hinduism Serves Different Functions - Research Paper Example This is accomplished through various stages in Yoga. In the present context, evolution of yoga, its types and their bases will be studied through the available literature. 2. Historical perspective: Yoga is a proven method of application to achieve a stress-free life. Yoga, in Sanskrit, means ‘to yoke’ or ‘to unite’ (Feuerstein, 36). The Bhagavad-Gita is the sacred text of the Hindus and the basis for Hindu religion, which contains teachings from the Hindu deity, Lord Krishna. This text explains that human beings are constantly in conflict with self and surroundings through emotions, which is the reason for all misery. In order for humans to liberate themselves from various forms of misery, it is important to achieve a balance between the mind, body and soul, which can be accomplished through Yoga. This art helps in uniting the mind, body and soul through various postures, breathing patterns, meditation, chanting, worship etc. These differential practices ar e different forms of Yoga. 3. Types of Yoga: Numerous types of yoga have been described in various texts, and classification of yoga has constantly been debated. In fact, the ancient text on Yoga identifies almost 112 types of yoga (Singh, p.ii), and is based on Hindu Lord, Siva’s teachings. ... 3.1 Karma Yoga: This yoga forms Lord Krishna’s basic teaching in the Bhagavad-Gita, and implies that ‘duty,’ ’deed,’ or ‘action’ alone should be the main aim of human being. Human beings should perform their rituals and duties in the most ethical and honest manner without expecting any return. This yoga is derived from the doctrine of Karma and reincarnation, which means an individual’s present life is shape by his/her actions in past life; and that the individual’s present actions and work would shape the future births (Robinson, 39). Karma yoga is the yoga of service or work, and actions. Actions include prayers and rituals for self-purification and service is that of serving the humanity. Every human being born on earth has to fulfill his duties and responsibilities, which will ultimately bring liberation from bonding and obligations through righteous actions/deeds (Robinson, 60). Moreover, experiences, results, happines s, sadness, pain and sorrow are all results of one’s own actions. Karma Yoga teaches that all human beings should strictly fulfill their respective responsibilities without expecting any specific outcomes. Such dedication towards duties will ease tension, stress, and attachments because actions will determine the results. 3.2. Jnana Yoga: This is the yoga of Knowledge about the self, God and the real world, which is acquired through the senses upon meditation. This Yoga requires the mind to settle in a peaceful state. Jnana Yoga is extremely difficult to practice because this requires a perfect balance between the mind and the body. Here, knowledge does not refer to information and understanding, but realization of the self. So, to practice Jnana

Marketing in Luxury Cars Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing in Luxury Cars - Case Study Example The ad has a creative bent helped by the tag "Engineered Mischief" which shows the car driving along and in the process casting a shadow shaped like a pitchfork. The advertising copy reads: "Born with a silver pitchfork in its mouth." In terms of consumer behavior, the focus of the Porsche Cayman print ad is targeted on persons who have a heavy substance and style. The Porsche Cayman cars are known for quality and performance advantage over most American-made cars. This constant superior car performance of the Porsche Cayman puts a high premium on these brands of cars. The Porsche Cayman wants to reinforce their sophisticated, high-class image by advertising and promotion that is highly focused on persons with status and privilege. In terms of over-all strategy, the marketing of this car is directed to the wealthy businessmen and executives as shown by the ad copy. The ad is directed to both the young and mature businessmen and executives as shown by the visual image of the devil's pitchfork which connotes great excitement, fun, breaking the barriers and adventure for the targeted market. The distribution of the car is handled by well-trained dealers. The print ads that the being introduced, each focusing on one of the pillars of the campaign. The print ads appear in magazines, including Time, Newsweek, Fortune, Real Simple, and Architectural Digest. The ad cites the economic impact: it focuses on Toyota's new plant in San Antonio, Texas, which directly employs 2,000 people and adds thousands of other new jobs to the area. The headline reads: "Can a pickup give 2,000 people a lift Why not" The ad cites a strong environmental commitment: it presents Toyota's aspirations for zero emission vehicles and zero waste in its plants. The headline reads: "Can you have an impact by making none at all Why not" The ad stresses social responsibility: it highlights Toyota's Driving Expectations Program, which teaches valuable defensive driving skills to teens and their parents. The headline reads: "Can the most important safety feature in a car be a teen driver Why not The ad campaign has a "vision" The text of the ad reads: WHY NOT Two words that are filled with possibilities. They can turn a challenge into an opportunity. An obstacle into an inspiration. It's a question we ask ourselves at Toyota every day. Because we're continuously looking for new ways to improve what we do. By asking tough questions. Can we make a car that has zero emissions Can we improve the economy of a community Can we enrich the lives of people around us Why not Toyota Lexus focused on market research to determine why a particular consumer segment loses interest in one vehicle while maintaining interest in another. Toyota Lexus acts to unplug that bottleneck by presenting a special options package to car buyers at an early stage of consideration or by staging invitation-only test-drives for new models. Brands that become familiar to people early in their lives are more likely to be purchased by them when they first buy cars.Toyota Lexus targets high-potential segments. It uses market segmentation for the Lexus branding effort. Japanese carmakers are leaders of targeting. The Lexus team started with the styles, needs, and values--identified through consumer research--that motivated

Cellular pathology 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cellular pathology 1 - Essay Example The eggs of  E. vermicularis which can be seen in the picture are roughly 25 x 60 um in size. The organism has a thin shell and one of the sides is compressed. The eggs and shell of organism have taken up the pink dye which makes them recognizable. The presence of E. vermicularis in the appendix can give the symptoms of acute appendicitis (Wiebe, 1991, p.g. 336). The appendix is a vestigial organ present in the human body. The inflammation of this organ leads to appendicitis. Acute appendicitis is one of most common diseases that lead to inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. Acute appendicitis is caused due to the obstruction of the lumen, diminished blood supply, pinworm infections caused by Enterobius vermicularis, bacterial infections or due to ischemic damage to mucosal lining of organ (Becker and Hofler, 2002, pg.777). The best described pathogenesis of appendicitis is an obstruction in the appendiceal lumen. The obstruction can be due to lodging of foreign body, lymphoid hyperplasia, fecolith or tumours. The pathogenesis of appendicitis can be understood by the course that the disease takes. In the primary stage, there is obstruction of the lumen which causes accumulation of fluid leading to elevation of intralumin al pressure and lastly resulting in distension of lumina. Suppurative appendicitis occurs due to increased intraluminal pressure which increases the capillary perfusion leading to venous obstruction and hence causing arterial compromise. These crucial events lead to ischemia of the mucosal surface and allow bacterial infestation. As the disease progresses, it causes mural infection which is characterized by oedematous thickening of the appendicular walls. When observed grossly the appendix appears hyperaemic and enlarged. If this progressive condition is not managed surgically it may lead to perforation and gangrene. Gangrenous appendicitis may present as friable serosa with green or black discoloration. If

Sustainability Policy & Procedure Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sustainability Policy & Procedure - Assignment Example ning’ process—from Logistics to Marketing and Sales (Fuji Xerox Company, 2010) —it is essential to get the full cooperation and support of every department in order to meet the expectations of greening for the company’s better image in the light of intended audience. 1.2. Scope. (Here must be stated when and to whom the process or procedure applies; also, who is affected, which areas, which activities, and what are the limits/parameters.) Starting with a launch period and being followed by follow-through or sustaining period, ‘Be Greener Campaign,’ in this regard, will also utilize various communication tools to bolster the impact of the campaign among its intended audience; therefore, to summarize the promotional initiatives for this program, this campaign within Fuji Xerox departments will be running for three months, from 30.12.12 to 30.02.13. 1.3. Roles. (Role and functions of anyone involved in the process/procedure.) It must put an emphasis on different functions and roles of these two stages of the ‘greening’ initiative involved in the process. Initially, Launch period is to introduce the Campaign to internal and external stakeholders – during the first month of the project, awareness of going green among all Fuji Xerox companies will be increasing with an assistance of national conventions; later on, in so called Sustaining period, from 30.12.12 to 30.02.13, dissemination of various communication medias will occur, as well as launch of mini programs for the further awareness and excitement increasing - among employees, stakeholders, and business partners of Fuji Xerox. 1.4. Definitions/Acronyms. (Here are definitions and acronyms that need to be defined in order to ensure proper interpretation of the process/procedure.) ‘Be Greener Campaign’ could be treated as a set of strategic initiatives concerning predominantly the efforts of ‘greening’ within the whole production cycle of Fuji Xerox. Consequently, it contains two

Proposal finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Proposal finance - Essay Example e main objectives are, first, determine the cause the global financial crisis and secondly, the effect of the financial crisis on the developing country. The research will attempt to answer the following questions; what caused the financial crisis and what was its impact on the least developed nations. The results of the research will be of great importance to both governments and private sector in both developing and developed nations alike. It will enable the governments to come up with strategies for predicting and preventing future occurrences. The private sector will be able to cushion their businesses from a financial crisis and learn how business practices can cause a financial crisis. Many economists consider the 2008 to 2012 financial crisis as the worst since the great depression of the 1930’s. It led to the collapse of financial institutions, decline in consumer wealth (Muma, 2012, p. 6); the stock market dropped worldwide and mortgages default in the housing sector. What started as US mortgage crunch (Sun et al., 2011, p. 2), extended to the other nation especially the European Union. On September 14, 2008, the fate of Lehman Brothers was to be decided (Dolezalek, 2011, p. 7). The eventual fall of Lehman Brothers undermined the confidence and trust of the investors in the financial market. One year earlier, the Bank of England has bailed out Northern Rock, a large mortgage lender (Dolezalek, 2011, p. 7). The financial and banking crisis that started in the developed nation reached the least developed nation through at least three channels. First, the crisis led to sharp decline in world trade volume (Alabi et al., 2011, p. 3) and commodity prices (Alabi et al., 2011, p. 116). Secondly, the foreign direct investment started declining since 2007 and hurt most, the mineral and oil exporting nations (Nafziger, 2012, p. 546). Thirdly, it led to a reduction in the foreign remittances to the least develop countries. The research will extend the body of

Porter's Industry Analysis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Porter's Industry Analysis - Case Study Example Creative, Samsung and Sony and a plethora of other companies manufacture small, portable music players which is an answer to apple ipod, since ipods are quite expensive people prefer buying other reliable music players which are way cheaper than the ipod. Barriers to Entry: Some of the most important points which should be considered under this section are as follows: Time and Cost of Entry Knowledge Economies of Scale Technology Other Barriers Fake Stores in China: â€Å"Recently it was found that there are several fake stores of apple in China, the fake apple products are bound to cost the company losses.† (Fake Apple Stores in China) Several big companies have lost a lot of money because of counterfeit products sold by the fake sellers. These fake stores will directly impact the credibility and the profits of the company, today there are fake stores in China, and tomorrow fake stores may open up in European countries. This will severely impact the brand name of the products and it will also hamper the reputation and the profits, this is a huge barrier and Apple must do something about it. â€Å"The favorable brand perception had also increased sales of Macintosh computers. So iPod gives the company access to a whole new series of segments that buy into other parts of the Apple brand. Sales of its notebooks products is also very strong, and represents a huge contribution to income for Apple.† (Apple SWOT) Threat of New Entrants: The following points must be considered under threat of new entrants: Verizon allows streaming audio and video with the help of a software called v-cast New entrants equipped with disruptive technology could affect apple significantly Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Intel, IBM, Motorola and others are big rivals of apple when it comes to processors and computer technology, it could give the new ipad and the iphone a good run for its money Sony, Warner, BMG and others are huge suppliers of music ABC, Fox, Sony and many oth ers are huge suppliers of movies and popular television shows Bargaining Power of Customer: Peer to peer technology provides free music to the customers Distributors may press apple to reduce its price or for better terms Economic downturn will lead to decreased spending of customers Substitutes Present a Substantial Threat: Satellite radio is becoming increasingly popular for music Xbox and the PS3 provide great entertainment, media and music can be enjoyed on these gaming consoles Dvds and Cds provide an alternate source of movies and music Theaters, cable tv and other sources are alternate sources for movies and videos Recommendations for apple: Maintain the same quality but bring down the prices a bit Joint ventures would surely prove profitable plots Focus on knowledge management Open more stores so that customers can easily get their hands on the latest products Work at making the technology better, innovation is the key to success. References Apple has More Money than the US Government (2011). Tech News. Retrieved from

Report of food industry in India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Report of food industry in India - Essay Example its of food, development of the human resources, supporting the research and development and the creation of the development of infrastructure and also the promotional measure that is adopted for encouraging the growth, development and processing of the food sector. The food processing has been considered as the large and the important sector for covering various activities which includes the horticulture, animal husbandry, agriculture, plantation and the fisheries. The government of India and the ministry of food processing has included the following items or the segments that is included in the food processing industry are processing of grain, fisheries, dairy , vegetables and food processing, the consumer foods which mainly comprises of the beverages ,packaged drinking water and foods and the processing of meat and poultry. In recent years it has been observed that India has experienced a substantial modification and development in the consumption, production and trade that is car ried out in the Indian agricultural sector. In the year 2000 it has been observed that India has experienced the growth rate in terms of the value that is related to the export of marine products, tea, sugar and rice. India is carrying high value of exports of various traditional commodities which includes coffee, tobacco, sugar and rice. The organized food sector of India constitutes to around 30%. The highest proportion or the share in case of the organized food in India is mainly contributed by the poultry and the meat segment. The macroeconomic environment in case of India provides a wide and diverse area and opportunities towards the growth and development in the industry and this contributes towards the development of the national economy. The food processing industry in India accounts for 32% of the food market in India. The food processing industry in India is one of the largest and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption and export. The total estimated value of

Unit 4 Discussion Board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Unit 4 Discussion Board - Essay Example Creating the sort of association with the followers probably derive all other associated activities with leadership. In this regard, it therefore not matter whether we need a new generation of leadership as well as new gender. As long as leadership can and should associate itself with the followers, there arises hardly a need to argue for a shift in the ways leadership is pursued and practiced. Though it has been argued that leadership has been viewed and studied with respect to the masculinity (-Metcalfe, 2002) however this is not the fact in its entirety. It must be noted that almost all the leadership whether in the corporate world or in political world was masculine and it was probably because of this reason that the leadership has mostly being studied within that context. In order to be an effective leader, there are various personal traits and qualities which a leader must have in order to be effective. These include from motivating the employees to making decisions of strategic nature. However, these traits are not gender specific in nature however there are certain attributes specific to both male and female leaders which both make them effective in their fields and leadership is largely gender neutral. (Gedney, 1999). However historically the evolution of leadership theories started with the focus on the masculine characteristics of the leaders. The so called Great Man theories of 1930s and 1940s greatly emphasized on the personal characteristics of the leaders including their intelligence, personal charisma etc. The great man theories largely emphasized on the role of males into the leadership however that was an era where there were very few opportunities left for the women to participate into the mainstream economy. Lack of opportunity was the refore the main reason behind the development of theoretical framework which were largely focusing on the masculine characteristics o f the leaders. This has historical connotations also because the

The BRICS are more effective in todays economic environment than the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ran by the United States Essay Example for Free

The BRICS are more effective in todays economic environment than the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund ran by the United States Essay Over the last few decades, the resilience and ability of the BRIC countries to withstand economic, social and political forces that have brought down big economies is exciting and worth noting.BRIC is a label that defines Brazil, Russia, India and China which according to demographics and recent economic performance have been identified as the countries to watch when it comes to economic development in the 21st century. The BRIC countries are set apart by their strong economic policies and largely by their demographics that is a large indicator of a countrys economic potential. Together, the four countries with the late addition of South Africa have a population of 2.8 billion people who are estimated to be at least 40% of the world population. The four are also believed to occupy a quarter of the land surface across three continents CITATION Glo15 l 2057 (Global Sherpa, 2015). Through the monetary fund, some regulations and guidelines have been established to guide the BRICS in their development agenda. The regulations are known as the Washington consensus and contain ten major areas the Bretton Woods institutions thought would spur economic growth in developing countries and encourage free trade. Over the years, the IMF and the World Bank have been key players in the development sector. The two institutions have often been used as a political tool to coerce the beneficiaries to play according to their rules. With the recent formation of the BRICS Bank in July of 2014, the two institutions’ influence on developing countries is set reduce. Developing countries, who have a similar agenda of future economic growth inclusivity and relevance, are know preferring the BRICS Bank. The bank offers loans without strings attached except loyalty, guarantee of participation and payment in the long-term development agenda. China, which is the largest contributor to the bank, has not imposed itself on members as commonly seen in IMF and Word Banks help. The aims of the Bretton Woods institutions, though hidden in the disguise of empowerment, are mainly operated as a business for profit. Between 2002 and 2008, BRICS managed to increase their GDP from 16% to 22%. Opening up their borders to foreign trade and have seen the countries expand outwards to have a presence in overseas markets. China of the four has seen great expansion in Africa where statistics in the last decade shows that China has been outdoing the Bretton Woods institutions in grants and loans advanced to other developing countries. The BRICS has seen growth in imports and growth in GDP despite economic ups and downs. Through their collaboration, BRICS have seen tremendous infrastructural development in technology and engineering.BRICS have developed tailor-made solutions for their problems unlike depending on solutions imposed by a third party. Developing countries feel more appreciated and included in their developmental agenda. The countries have together increased their spending on research and development leading to a 7% growth in research expenditure CITATION Glo15 l 2057 (Global Sherpa, 2015)Given that they possess a large labour population, high concentration of natural resources and a large population offering a big market, the BRICS are set for a more dominant role in economic growth. Being owners of capital and input, the Brics integration and corporation is setting the world towards a paradigm shift where developing countries are no longer onlookers but participants in the development agenda. These few achievements, over only five years, are more than what the Bretton Woods institutions achieved over the same time when they were formed. Hence, the conclusion that the BRICS are doing better than the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank References   Global Sherpa. (2015, January 07). bric-countries-brics. Retrieved from Global Sherpa: Retrieved from http://www.globalsherpa.org/bric-countries-brics Source document

Developments of Far Right Ideologies

Developments of Far Right Ideologies 1. Introduction Political scientists, in recent years, have been concerned over the revival of extreme right political movements in Europe and other parts of the world. Even as extreme right wing ideologies continue to be identified by the general public with the discredited fascist movements that swept Europe in the first half of the twentieth century, they also continue to fascinate political experts and the public with their myriad hues, complexities and the morbid attraction they hold for people in different political settings. Just three-fourths of a century back, in the first quarter of the 1900s, waves of leftist movements buffeted the countries of Europe and threatened to overwhelm not just the bastions of free trade and capitalism, but also the democratic models that, to some degree, worked in the UK and the USA. The aftermath of the First World War, depleted European treasuries and the great American depression had led to large-scale unemployment, poverty and economic despair in most states of Western Europe. With life being uncomfortable, unfair and difficult for millions of people, the political environment was open to upheavals and led to the spread of Communism, and to the emergence of fascism, as well as its widespread acceptance. These two political ideologies, one left and the other right, deeply opposed to each other, went on to dominate the political processes of Europe until the Second World War. The war ended in the military defeat and eclipse of fascism, as well as its virtual obliteration from the political lexicon. The vengeance of the victors ensured that the word became a worldwide slur, shunned by all political parties. Fascism owes its origin to the Italian leader Benito Mussolini and takes its name, both from the word â€Å"fascio†, meaning union or league, and from fasces, a Roman symbol of magisterial authority that suggests strength through unity. Its ideology, while originally represented by the political movement led by Mussolini, later came to stand for a generic class of authoritarian ideology that received widespread acceptance and support in Western Europe. While fascist parties and governments faced the charge of commitment of enormous crimes against humanity after the end of the Second World War and their extinction led to widespread relief, the eighties and nineties witnessed resurgence in parties with broadly similar extreme right ideologies. The resurrection of the extreme right in Europe in the last two decades has also led to the expression of new thoughts, which focus on strong opposition to immigration and on the disenchantment of certain sections of society with the contradictions and challenges created by the democratic system. Britains problems with xenophobia and right wing violence have their equivalents all over the Continent, from Antwerp to Vienna. I could just as easily have begun this book with descriptions of the right-wing street terror of the East German university towns of Jena and Erfurt, or the widespread surmises-probably untrue-behind the soccer hooligan violence of the European Cup in 2000. Or the right-wing electoral surges that occurred from Romania to the German state of Saxony-Anhalt. Or the racist prejudice and violence visited upon asylum-seekers and immigrants in places as far apart as Paris and Budapest. A host of extreme right-wing phenomena-though hardly anything resembling the fascist and Nazi upsurge of the 1920s and 1930s-are on the march all over Europe. [1] Many European countries, including the UK, have political parties with neofascist political ideologies. However, a number of factors, like the absence of a defining common ideological treatise, (like the communist manifesto that governs leftist thought) as well as significant differences in their political and social approaches, have led some political scientists to surmise that extreme right wing ideologies do not share a common theme. The representation of every isolated xenophobic reaction to be a manifestation of neofascism has also added greatly to the confusion enveloping the issue. It is the aim of this essay to study the history, nature, incidence and practice of extreme right wing political thought, and analyse whether this impression is valid, or whether all extreme right movements do share common and distinct ideology. 2. Commentary Right wing ideologies sprouted all over Europe in the 1920s and 1930s. Apart from Italy under Mussolini, Germany’s Third Reich under Adolf Hitler, Portugal’s Estado Novo, Hungary’s Arrow Cross Perty, Romania’s Iron Guard and Spain’s Falange were among the parties and governments considered to be fascist. In recent years fascism and modern concepts of extreme right ideologies have been studied in detail by researchers like Roger Eatwell, Roger Griffin, Piero Ignazi and Cas Mudde, their work contributing significantly towards opening up the area to greater scrutiny. The rise of extreme right wing ideologies is associated mostly with the fascist movements in Italy and Germany, which culminated in seizure of governmental power. Its’ rise in Europe, however, actually commenced with the end of the First World War, and the descent of an uneasy peace on the war ravaged continent.This peaceful interregnum was, as is well known, marked by a number of deveopments that led to the collapse of democracy in most European countries; other than France and Britain. The Bolshevik Revolution and the formation of the Soviet state had already sent shockwaves through the landed gentry, the bourgeoisie and the businessmen of Europe. This â€Å"fear of communist takeover, imaginary or otherwise, coupled with widespread unhappiness over the Versailles Treaty, terrible economic conditions, huge unemployment figures and the desire of minorities to assert themselves created conditions that seemed to herald the doom of capitalism†[2] and invite ambitious and power hungry individuals to come forth, promise grandiose futures, create easily distinguishable punching bags, weave extravagant dreams of national glory and take over the reins of power. Mussolini came to power on the back of a political career that began in 1912 and culminated in his assumption of the Prime Minister’s office, and dictatorial powers, in 1922. Even though he entered politics as a socialist, his journey to power was marked with many shifts in ideology, which saw him, at different stages, allying with the landed bourgeoisie, espousing women’s suffragette, wooing capitalists and breaking worker strikes; all this, before the takeover of power by his Fascist Party led to a more detailed elaboration of Italian extreme right wing ideology. â€Å"The Party, along with big business, the Church, state, army, Fascist unions, and corporations became one of several semi-autonomous power centres in Fascist Italy.†[3] While Mussolini became the archetypal fascist and encouraged the rise of fascist movements in other countries including the Nazis in Germany, the Heimwehr in Austria, Mosley’s party in the UK and the Falange in Spain, his form of fascism differed from extreme right ideologies prevalent in other countries of Europe; which in turn were influenced by local political and social conditions. Similar differences in right wing ideology espoused by various parties in Europe exist even today. The progressive vulgarisation of fascism over the years and its representation as a badly put together collection of half-baked clichà ©s and reactionary attitudes has served to make extreme right ideology a collective object of derision, the misconceptions over its principles being further exacerbated by continual mindless referrals that sometimes border on the ludicrous. George Orwell wrote in 1944: the word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely meaningless. In conversation, of course, it is used even more wildly than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers, shopkeepers, Social Credit, corporal punishment, fox-hunting, bull-fighting, the 1922 Committee, the 1941 Committee, Kipling, Gandhi, Chiang Kai-Shek, homosexuality, Priestleys broadcasts, Youth Hostels, astrology, women, dogs and I do not know what else almost any English person would accept ‘bully’ as a synonym for ‘Fascist’. [4] However, many political scientists thinkers do believe that extreme right wing ideology, when used in a proper and accurate context, is well defined and has specific features. Robert Pearce argues that the ambit of orthodox fascism specifically includes (a) an extreme form of nationalism, where humans are important but only as part of a nation, (b) social Darwinism, which stipulates that struggle between nations is inevitable, (c) theories of racism, which operate on hierarchies of races and brand some as inferior; (d) anti-positivism, or rather, the belief that humans are influenced more by myth and intuition than by logic and reason, (e) the notion of the heroic and wise leader, and (f) the idea of the corporate state, a constructive middle path between capitalism and communism.[5] Roger Eatwell of Bath University has also put forward a number of stipulations that he feels should form a minimum fascist agenda. Eatwell states that the importance of the new man and the creation of new elite are at the centre of fascist ideology. This concept of elitism, illustrated by Mussolini’s belief in trenchocracy and Hitler’s obsession with breeding a race of super teutons, is common to all fascist and extreme right political thought. In fascism, the new man is required to battle for his country and be instrumental in the build-up of the state. Fascists placed emphasis on integrating man through a form of manipulated activism in both the political and economic spheres. They were encouraged to attend mass celebrations, which unquestionably had a quasi-religious appeal for some. The Dopolavoro and German copy, the KdF, organised events such as mass holidays, for example to the island of Rà ¼gen, which had the largest hotel in the world in 1939. Professional sport too became a form of popular control. State-subsidised sport could also provide more individualised and even commercially-related pleasures, such as motor sport in which Alfa Romeos, Mercedes and Auto Unions vied for dominance and national prestige on Europes circuits.[6] Apart from a strong focus on the development of manhood, fascism was distinguished by an emphatic sense of nationalism, a strong belief in the importance of race, a virulent opposition to communism and the significance of the state in regulating political, social and business activity. The importance of the state arose primarily from the contempt that leaders of fascist movements felt for the ability of the masses to play any constructive role on their own. The inordinate use of myth and propaganda by fascist governments also emphasises this proclivity of the elite to think of the masses as gullible and easily led herds. The use of myth was thought to have a much stronger effect in galvanising public opinion than the use of reason and logic, be it to foster belief in the concept of racial superiority, the necessity for persecution of Jews, the imperativeness of going to war, or for increasing production in factories. While anti-Semitism reached demoniacal proportions in Nazi Germany, the importance of racial purity and superiority was also evident in Italy, where coloured people, rather than Jews, were targeted for persecution. While fascism, per se, was based on the specific value systems elaborated in the preceding para, the extreme right movements that emerged in Europe in the 1980s were influenced by certain contemporaneous developments that resulted in some modifications to the traditional approach. Right wing extremism, though still not a serious threat, has gained significant acceptance in the recent past in countries like France, Germany, Austria, Belgium and Italy. Le Pen scored very well in the French presidential elections of 2003. Many European extreme right parties, for example, the Flaams Blok in Belgium, the Alleanza Nazionale and Lega Nord in Italy and the FPO in Austria have succeeded in increasing their electoral base. Germany and Austria, in particular, have seen strong growth in the development of neo fascist support. Since unification, a violent xenophobic youth culture and an extreme right movement with neo-Nazi edges have taken hold and spread in Germany, especially in the states of the former GDR, temporarily, they established so-called nationally liberated zones in which they try to seize power and authority by means of sustained violence, and they are supported by occasional regional electoral successes. [7] The political development of the new right differs from country to country. In Europe, it appears to have moved away from conventional neofascism to firstly, incorporate resentment against immigration and dilution of cultural heritage in its agenda, and secondly, use democratic representation to push for anti immigration policies, based on nationalist and populist emotions. According to (Piero) Ignazi, the new extreme right politically signifies, articulates and successfully mobilizes a formerly silent counter-revolution of a return to authoritarian-nationalist and conventional moral values, directed against culturally pluralized, postmaterial libertarian values, individualized lifestyles, and postindustrial sociocultural modernization.[8] In 2000, Jorg Haider’s FPO became Austria’s second strongest political force. Moreover, the party also succeeded in entering government, albeit as a junior partner; the first case of power coming to the hands of the extreme right in a West European country after the demolition of the Italian and German regimes. In a state that considers itself to be one of the biggest victims of Nazism, the FNP and the FPO, both parties that belong to the extreme right, base their electoral appeal on a mixture of ethnic pride, national identity, xenophobia, and anti Semitism. It is pertinent to note that Austria has also had to face significant increases in immigration, legal and illegal, after the fall of the iron curtain and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Cas Mudde, who in his book, â€Å"The Ideology of the Extreme Right† has made a detailed analysis of five rightist parties, concludes that four features, built around the core of nationalism, form the essence of right wing extremism.[9] The state should implement a policy of internal homogenization and create a mono-cultural society through the deportation of foreigners The world view is defined by a pervasive xenophobia, in which anything different is seen to be threatening and includes external and internal enemies All parties studied support a form of socioeconomic welfare chauvinism Well-ordered community life is essential for the protection of citizens and society. Roger Eatwell states that in addition to using xenophobic insecurities, extreme right parties also attempt to broad base their appeal by supporting tradition and conservatism in social life. Certainly extreme right groups tend to defend traditional values. The FPÃâ€", for example, developed in the late 1990s the idea of a Kinder Scheck, a form of new child benefit designed to help keep women in the home (previously welfare programmes had not figured in FPÃâ€" campaigns, other than through its stress on immigrant parasites). They also tend to be hostile to forms of sexual liberation, such as homosexuality. Extreme right groups also tend to be nationalist, although a notable minority stresses ethno regionalism as the primary source of identification (the homogenous, relatively limited geographic region is often portrayed as a natural rather than bureaucratic barrier to immigration)[10] The extreme right, in the 1920s and in recent times, has worked primarily on the insecurities of people who feel threatened and insecure by seemingly uncontrollable social, environmental and economic developments. This happens, mostly by using conspiracy theories and by projecting social contradictions onto an intangible and hazy enemy. These ideologies continue to appeal to the social paranoia of threatened sub-groups by projecting the benefits of a well-ordered authoritarian world peopled by ethnic and nationalist communities over the numerous uncertainties and social challenges raised by democratisation, the implementation of universal values and modernisation of culture and society. 3. Conclusion It has become increasingly evident that electorates have not been able to entirely reject extreme right ideologies, even after the ostracisms heaped on them after the Second World War. Extreme right ideologies continue to exist, not just under the dictatorships of despots like Idi Amin, but also in the democratic and affluent economies of Western Europe. Neofascism takes much of its inspiration from the fascist theories of the 1920s, when people were aroused on the platforms of superiority of race, creation of superior men, anticommunism and delusions of nationalist grandeur. Modern day ideology continues to stress upon the importance of ethnicity, if not race, and mostly all extreme right ideologies converge in their aim of removing outsiders. While the concept of the mythical ideal man is not thought of, any longer, as a serious possibility, extreme right ideologies work on a sense of ethnic nationalism, the desire for homogenization, and the relative safety of an authoritarian and socially conservative state, ruled wisely by a powerful and able leader. Extreme right movements have not become powerful enough to capture power and run governments, the exception being Austria where the FPO participates in Government as a minority partner. As the ideologies of extreme right parties are still restricted to inflammatory rhetoric, it is difficult to predict the modifications these ideologies may have to undergo, when faced with the real and inherently globalised and democratised world. An illustrative example is the case of the FPO in Austria where the party, classified as a ghetto party in the late fifties, achieved substantial electoral success and joined government, albeit in the face of fierce opposition from many EU states; who joined hands to keep the FPO leader Jorg Haider out of office. It is common knowledge that during the period the party was out of power its political position was anything but responsible. The FPÃâ€" opted for an aggressive campaigning style and employed political rhetoric that was often unbridled. Its core electoral issues included political corruption, over-foreignization (ÃÅ"berfremdung), (immigrant) criminality, the alleged arrogance of the EU and a celebration of the supposedly exemplary values of the little man. The fact that during this period the FPÃâ€" had no political responsibility whatsoever for national politics and was dismissed by its competitors as qualitatively unsuitable for government (not least precisely because of the unrestrained nature of its campaigning style), only made it all the easier for the party constantly to engage in irresponsible electoral outbidding of the then governing parties.[11] Interestingly, the FPO has lost a fair amount of support after it joined government. While this may possibly be due to the fact that governmental responsibility has required a toning down of irresponsible rhetoric, experts feel that the slump in popularity could also be due to the open hostility showed by the other EU states to the FPO’s participation in government in Austria. It is quite difficult to assess how these organisations will ultimately place themselves, or even to predict whether anti Semitism will replace the current anti Muslim feeling in Europe. However, it does seem apparent that most extreme right ideologies have a number of common tenets, possibly because they arise from the same universal insecurities, which concern trespass, a distrust of outsiders, a comfort in association with one’s own kind and an inherent desire for the stability provided by a father figure. It would also be quite logical to surmise that as all extreme right ideologies work on these insecurities; their solutions will also tend to be similar, modified only because of local political and social equations. Bibliography Antliff, Mark. Fascism, Modernism and Modernity. The Art Bulletin 84, no. 1 (2002): 148+. Berlet, Chip. The Right Rides High. The Progressive, October 1994, 22+. Blum, George P. The Rise of Fascism in Europe. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998. . Century ed. Peter H. Maerkl and Leonard Weinberg ,London: Frank Cass, 2003 Eatwell, R, The Nature of ‘Generic Fascism, U. Backes (ed.), Rechsextreme Ideologien im 20 und 21 Jahhundert (Bohlau Verlag, Cologne) 2003retrieved 3 Jan 2006 from staff.bath.ac.uk/mlsre/Seriousfascism.htm Eatwell, R, Chapter Two Ten Theories of the Extreme Right, in Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century ed. Peter H. Maerkl and Leonard Weinberg ,London: Frank Cass, 2003, 53 Fascist as Epithet, Fascism, Wikipedia, 2006, retrieved Jan 3 2007 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism Federici, Michael P. The Challenge of Populism: The Rise of Right-Wing Democratism in Postwar America. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1991. Hoffmann, Stanley. Why Dont They like Us? How America Has Become the Object of Much of the Planets Genuine Grievances-And Displaced Discontents. The American Prospect, November 19, 2001, 18+. Ignazi, Piero. Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Luther, Kurt Richard, Chapter Eight The FpÃâ€": from Populist Protest to Incumbency, in Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century ed. Peter H. Maerkl and Leonard Weinberg London: Frank Cass, 2003, 197, Lipset, Seymour Martin, and Earl Raab. The Politics of Unreason: Right Wing Extremism in America, 1790-1970. 1st ed. New York: Harper Row, 1970. Maerkl, Peter H. and Leonard Weinberg, eds. Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century. London: Frank Cass, 2003. Marfleet, Philip. The Clash Thesis: War and Ethnic Boundaries in Europe. Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) 25, no. 1-2 (2003): 71+. Michael, George. Confronting Right Wing Extremism and Terrorism in the USA. New York: Routledge, 2003 Miller, Marlowe A. Unveiling The Dialectic of Culture and Barbarism in British Pageantry: Virginia Woolfs Between the Acts.. Papers on Language Literature 34, no. 2 (1998): 134+. Minkenberg, Michael, and Martin Schain. Introduction. In Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century, edited by Maerkl, Peter H. and Leonard Weinberg, 1-19. London: Frank Cass, 2003. Moore, Robert. Race, Class and Struggle: Essays on Racism and Inequality in Britain, the US and Western Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 26, no. 2 (2000): 372. . Morgan, Philip. Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945. London: Routledge, 2002. Mudde, C, The Ideology of the Extreme Right, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2003 Passmore, Kevin. Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2002. . Pierce, R, Fascism, New Perspective, vol. 3, No. 1, 1997, retrieved 4 Jan 2007 www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~semp/facism.htm Racism in Contemporary America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996. Rensmann, Lars. The New Politics of Prejudice: Comparative Perspectives on Extreme Right Parties in European Democracies. German Politics and Society 21, no. 4 (2003): 93+. Rubinstein, Gidi. Right-Wing Authoritarianism, Political Affiliation Religiosity, and Their Relation to Psychological Androgyny. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 33, no. 7-8 (1995): 569+. Scheck, Raffael. Mothers of the Nation : Right-Wing Women in Weimar Germany /. New York: Berg, 2003. Swomley, John M. Neo-Fascism and the Religious Right. The Humanist, January/February 1995, 3+. Veen, Hans-Joachim, Norbert Lepszy, and Peter Mnich. The Republikaner Party in Germany: Right-Wing Menace or Protest Catchall?. Westport, CT: Praeger Paperback, 1993. Witt, Mary Ann Frese. The Search for Modern Tragedy: Aesthetic Fascism in Italy and France. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001. 1 Footnotes [1] Michael Minkenberg, and Martin Schain, Introduction, in Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century ed. Peter H. Maerkl and Leonard Weinberg (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 3, [2] Robert Pierce, Fascism, New Perspective, vol. 3, No. 1, 1997, retrieved 4 Jan 2007 from www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~semp/facism.htm> [3] Kevin Passmore, Fascism: A Very Short Introduction , Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2002, [4] Fascist as Epithet, Fascism, Wikipedia, 2006, retrieved Jan 3 2007 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism [5] Robert Pierce, Fascism [6] Eatwell, R, The Nature of ‘Generic Fascism, U. Backes (ed.), Rechsextreme Ideologien im 20 und 21 Jahhundert (Bohlau Verlag, Cologne) 2003 retrieved 3 Jan 2006 from staff.bath.ac.uk/mlsre/Seriousfascism.htm [7] Lars Rensmann, The New Politics of Prejudice: Comparative Perspectives on Extreme Right Parties in European Democracies, German Politics and Society 21, no. 4 , 2003 [8] Lars Rensmann, The New Politics of Prejudice: Comparative Perspectives on Extreme Right Parties in European Democracies, [9] Cas Mudde, The Ideology of the Extreme Right (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003 [10] Roger Eatwell, Chapter Two Ten Theories of the Extreme Right, in Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century ed. Peter H. Maerkl and Leonard Weinberg ,London: Frank Cass, 2003, 53 [11] Kurt Richard Luther, Chapter Eight The FpÃâ€": from Populist Protest to Incumbency, in Right-Wing Extremism in the Twenty-First Century ed. Peter H. Maerkl and Leonard Weinberg, London: Frank Cass, 2003, 197,

The Philosophy of Gift Giving

The Philosophy of Gift Giving The gift is primarily about the relationships being transacted, about the people involved in these transactions rather than the ceremonial giving and receiving of things (Carrier 1995: 19). Write an essay evaluating the role of alienable and inalienable goods in underscoring the importance of exchange transactions. In order for us to take an in depth look at the idea of gift giving and the relationships involved in such a ceremonial transaction we must first look at the people that are involved in the transaction. Not only must we look that the people but we must also focus on the affiliation between people and the actual object itself. Carrier himself states in his essay; Gifts and Commodities that Clearly there is much more in our relationship to objects than sheer utility (Carrier, 1995. 1), and thus proving to us that there we have a much more intimate relationship with material objects than we first imagined. This bond is deep enough that we even need material objects to define who we are sometimes, for example if a punk rocker claims to be a punk rocker he must dress according to the social image of a punk rocker and from there we can assume that persons identity and personality as a punk rocker. Carrier says himself that The corollary is that objects signify status identity and so consti tute a claim to status-group membership on the part of those who have them (Carrier, 1995. 2). Another major concept that is involved with both the relationship between humans and material objects and with the ceremonial act of gift giving is reciprocity. It shows us and defines to us the strength of the bond between people and material objects. It goes without a doubt that humans have a natural affiliation with objects as we all have a material need and it is through these objects that we can control these needs. Carrier states in his essay; Gifts and Commodities that Humans do have material needs, and objects can satisfy them (Carrier, 1995. 1). As I stated earlier we need material objects for a variety of reasons, one of which is for them help define and show our society both our identity and our personality. It is for this reason that we have such a deep connection with material objects, because as long as society continues to exist so will the need for material objects. However this essay, nor is Carriers essay, about the connection between people, identity and material objects but instead, as Carrier puts it, we are going to investigate the ways that objects are implicated in personal relationships, rather than seeing them in mass structures of meaning and identity (Carrier, 1995. 10). In order to get a full understand ing of such a topic we must first take a look at what is known as reciprocity, reciprocity is a term used to describe the exchange of goods and labour. It was separated into a few separate terms know as, generalized reciprocity, balanced or Symmetrical reciprocity and negative reciprocity. The term which most applies to the ceremony of gift giving is generalized reciprocity as it is described as the event of giving or sharing. It is defined as when a certain individual shares his expertise with another individual in his society who is in need of his goods or labour without expecting anything in return. However this does not define the event as reciprocal as the giver expects nothing in return, but this interaction is indeed reciprocal as the individual who gives his goods is overcome by such satisfaction in giving his services, and the fact that it creates a social bond between the giver and the receiver and that is what he attains in return for his goods or services. In modern day society this seems to occur mainly between parents and children or within married couples as there seems to be a certain amount of trust and social interaction involved between the people within the event. It is through these transactions with other people that also help define our identity, not just that material object itself. Carrier himself says that; Indeed, in some ways transaction creates the very identities of those involved in it. (Carrier. 1995. 35) These, reciprocal events help define our relationships with other people, as I said before through these events we can gain social bonds with people but we also need certain amount of social interaction with that same person before we can involve ourselves in such a transaction. What is also interesting about these transactions, and indeed very much present in the generalized reciprocity that I defined earlier, is that we are indeed a selfish race. We only give gifts so that we may receive something in return. In the context of generalized reciprocity we only give our goods and labour so that it can be returned in the feeling of gratitude and the formation of a social bond. Marcel Mauss states in his essay; The Gift that gifts are never free and as a selfish race we will always expect something in return as we only give so that we may receive. Mauss probably most famous question raised by his essay The Gift was; What power resides in the object given that causes its recipient to pay it back?, (Mauss, 1990. 3) an the answer seems to be simple enough. The Power lies not with the object itself but rather with the unspoken contract that it creates with the people involved in the transaction. The giver does not only give away some material abject but also gives a way a part of themselves with that object; this creates a strong bond between the giver and the item he gave away. Mauss himself says that the objects are never completely separated from the men who exchange them (Mauss, 1990. 31). Because of this bond between the gift and the giver the receiver has a certain obligation to return the favour to the giver in the form of a gift of the same, if not better value. Although the receiver is not under any law to return in such a manner and it is solely up to him if he returns the favour, the failure to reciprocate often results in the loss of social status and trust amongst his peers. Mauss describes an even greater consequence to the failure of the act of reciprocation, in Polynesia that failure to abide by the obligations of reciprocity results in the loss of mana which is a persons spiritual energy and source of power and wealth. Mauss breaks down the ceremonial event of gift giving into three separate stages and obligations; giving, rece iving and reciprocating. Giving is the step that is needed to maintain a social relationship, receiving is the act of acknowledging and accepting that social relationship and failure to accept results in the rejection of that relationship, and last is reciprocating as it shows ones honour and social status within the society. We can see this throughout the ethnography of the Kula ring and the Kula shells, whereby giving the shells away is just as important as receiving them for they are not meant to kept forever but instead passed on. Is saying this however we must also look at the concept of inalienability in reference to gift exchange as it plays a major part in both Mauss essay and the ceremonial act of gift-giving. An inalienable object is something that cannot be exchanged from one individual to another. Instead they have to be sold and the rights of ownership are then passed to the new owner, the object has therefore become an alienated item to the original owner as they no longer have the rights to that object however the concept of free gifts is a slightly different one. Instead of the owner selling the object and becoming completely alienated from the item given, the gift instead renders the item under loan. Therefore the original owner remains the rightful owner and this rightful ownership has the power to compel the recipient to return the favour. Carrier points out the same concept in his essay where he says that if he buys a bottle of wine in s hop it is now his and can do what he wants with it, inclu ding pouring it down the drain, however if his mother buys him a bottle of wine it is her choice for him and becomes a token of her affection towards him and in turn this makes it a part of her identity, he therefore could not simply throw it out like his own bottle of wine. This identity that we find in the object is also what Mauss calls the hau. The hau is what is known as the spirit of the gift, it lives inside the gift and has a deep connection with its original owner, and therefore the object is constantly trying to return to its rightful owner, increasing the obligation of the receiver to return the gesture of gift-giving. Because the gift is an inalienable object and the rights of ownership still belong to the gift giver, the favour must be returned by the receiver as the act of gift giving creates a contract between the people involved and that in turn creates a sort of gift giving social debt that must be repaid by the receiver. So then according to Mauss, if the free gift is not returned buy the receiver the act of gift giving therefore becomes a contradiction as if the gift is not returned it cannot create social ties because the demands of the obligations are not met. Mauss therefore believes that social solidarity is achieved through the concept of gift giving and the social relations that it creates. Carrier also raises the issues of alienation within his own essay as he tackles the concepts of the self and alienation. He shows us how some commodities and objects cannot be alienated from our selves as they are too closely linked with our identities. For example Carrier supposes to us that we cannot put our right to vote up for sale, as that is our constitutional right as a citizen to execute, and Carrier also says; Equally, one cannot sell ones decision on how to vote. (Carrier, 1995. 29) What he means here is that we cannot be told how or who to vote for in an election by somebody else in exchange for money. However Carrier does state that One can . . . give that decision as a gift (Carrier, 1995. 29). Carrier goes on to tell us that one cannot sell oneself as that would mean that we are putting ourselves up for slavery, which realistically one cannot do as one cannot alienate themselves from oneself, but one can sell ones labour ability. And again the same can be said for selli ng oneself sexually, as that is considered prostitution and punishable by the law, but one can give themselves sexually as a gift. What Carrier is trying to say is that one cannot be alienated from all aspects and the identity of their life, but through the act of gift giving, we can lend our insights, experiences and goods to our peers and those who need them in our society. But Carrier goes on to talk about these inalienable qualities and how they relate us to one another and not to our objects. Carrier says; My mother and I are linked by what our society sees as inalienable attributes. (Carrier, 1995. 31). What he is saying is that the blood bond between himself and his mother defines them and imposes on each of the obligation to interact and transact in certain ways and under certain circumstances. This then in turn can relate to the interactions between a gift giving relationship. Thus, gift transactors are social persons defined in significant ways by their inalienable positio ns in a structure of personal social relations that encompasses them. (Carrier, 1995. 31). And thus showing us how gift transactions help define who we are. In Carriers essay; Gifts and Commodities he states that; in many societies dominated by gift exchange that structure of kinship provides the basis of peoples identities and their relations with each other, and thus their obligations to transact with each other. What Carrier is trying to say her is that rather than our objects entirely defining who we are, the act of gift giving from person to person may be more important to our identities than the actual object we are giving. The relationship between the giver and the receiver is of utmost importance to their social relationship, the item in this context seems of little importance, for it is through these acts of gift giving and the obligations that ensue the actions that help us build our social relations. This is helped along by the inclusion of alienated objects and inalienable objects within a gift transaction, for both come with certain obligations where we sell and item so it becomes alienable or the object is entirely inaliena ble to us, both are connected to the relationship between the giver and the receiver, and building a social relationship between the two. It was Mauss who claims that it is these gift giving ceremonies that build the social solidarity of a culture.